Parental coaching strategies for child failure resilience: Predictors and child mastery motivation

Wen Wang; Ashley M. Fraser; Kelsey Lucca; Fahad Usman; Ying Huang; Camille Elder

doi:10.37291/2717638X.202671708

Authors

Wen Wang North Dakota State University https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3778-4166
Ashley M. Fraser Brigham Young University https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2002-3512
Kelsey Lucca Arizona State University https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0581-2257
Fahad Usman North Dakota State University https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7337-3084
Ying Huang North Dakota State University https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4119-9522
Camille Elder Brigham Young University https://orcid.org/0009-0003-5790-2101

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.37291/2717638X.202671708

Keywords:

Parents’ coaching strategies, Failure resilience, Mastery motivation, Failure mindset, Grit

Abstract

Early encounters with failure can serve as a double-edged sword for children, offering either valuable learning experiences or posing challenges to future achievement. However, a significant research gap remains regarding how parents coach their children to cope with failure. This study developed a novel survey to measure parents’ coaching strategies in response to children’s failure in math, reading, and extracurricular learning activities, and explored their associations with child mastery motivation and predictors. A sample of 145 primary caregivers (87% biological mothers) of children aged 4 to 7 (mean age = 6.02, and 45% boys) was recruited both locally and online in the US. Primary caregivers completed an online survey. Factor analysis was utilized to identify parents’ coaching strategies, and multiple regression analysis was adopted to examine the predictors and outcomes of these strategies. We identified three distinct coaching strategies: Emotion-Coaching Strategies, Persistence Strategies, and Permissive/Minimization Strategies. Emotion-Coaching and Persistence Strategies were positively correlated with children’s mastery motivation, including object-oriented persistence, mastery pleasure, and general competence. Conversely, Permissive/Minimization Strategies were linked to lower mastery pleasure and higher negative reactions to failure. Furthermore, parents' and children's personal traits predicted parents’ coaching strategies. Specifically, parents’ grit and children’s effortful control were related to Emotion-Coaching Strategies, while parents’ failure mindsets, grit, and perfectionism correlated with Persistence Strategies. Family income significantly predicted Permissive/Minimization Strategies. The findings highlight the complexities of parental coaching approaches and their implications for fostering resilience in children facing failure in their learning journeys.

References

Balk, D. (1983). Learned helplessness: A model to understand and overcome a child's extreme reaction to failure. Journal of School Health, 53(6), 365–370. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.1983.tb05367.x

Barrett, K. C., & Morgan, G. A. (2018). Mastery motivation: Retrospect, present, and future directions. In A. Elliot (Ed.), Advances in motivation science: 5 (pp. 1–39). Elsevier. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.adms.2018.01.002

Barrett, K. C., Morgan, G. A., & Maslin-Cole, C. (1993). Three studies on the development of mastery motivation in infancy and toddlerhood. In D. J. Messer (Ed.), Mastery motivation in early childhood: Development, measurement and social processes (pp. 83–108). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315544250-5

Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55(1), 83–96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1129836

Bornstein, M. H., Putnick, D. L., & Suwalsky, J. T. D. (2018). Parenting cognitions → parenting practices → child adjustment? The standard model. Development and Psychopathology, 30(2), 399–416. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417000931

Burgess, A. M., Frost, R. O., & DiBartolo, P. M. (2016). Development and validation of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale–Brief. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 34(7), 620–633. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282916651359

Calo, M., Judd, B., Chipchase, L., Blackstock, F., & Peiris, C. L. (2022). Grit, resilience, mindset, and academic success in physical therapist students: A cross-sectional, multicenter study. Physical Therapy, 102(6), pzac038. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ptj/pzac038

Castelli, L., De Dea, C., & Nesdale, D. (2008). Learning social attitudes: Children’s sensitivity to the nonverbal behaviors of adult models during interracial interactions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(11), 1504–1513. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208322769

Ching, B. H. H., Li, X. F., & Chen, T. T. (2023). Longitudinal Links between parental failure mindsets, helicopter parenting, and fixed mindset of intelligence in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 52(10), 2196-2213. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01815-5

Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., & Martin, M. J. (2010). Socioeconomic status, family processes, and individual development. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 685-704. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00725.x

Duckworth, A. L., & Quinn, P. D. (2009). Development and validation of the Short Grit Scale (GRIT–S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(2), 166-174. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802634290

Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087 - 1101. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087

Dunn, J., Cormier, D., Kono, S., Dunn, J. C., & Rumbold, J. (2021). Perfectionism and grit in competitive sport. Journal of Sport Behavior, 44(2). https://shura.shu.ac.uk/id/eprint/28514

Dweck, C. (2016). What having a “growth mindset” actually means. Harvard Business Review, 13(2), 2–5.

Eskreis-Winkler, L., & Fishbach, A. (2019). Not learning from failure—The greatest failure of all. Psychological Science, 30(12), 1733-1744. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619881133

Frogley, W. J., King, G. L., & Westrupp, E. M. (2023). Profiles of parent emotion socialization: Longitudinal associations with child emotional outcomes. Mental Health & Prevention, 30, 200274. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhp.2023.200274

Gilmore, L., Cuskelly, M., & Purdie, N. (2003). Mastery motivation: Stability and predictive validity from ages two to eight. Early Education and Development, 14 (4), 411–424. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15566935eed1404_2

Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1996). Parental meta-emotion philosophy and the emotional life of families: Theoretical models and preliminary data. Journal of Family Psychology, 10(3), 243–268. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.10.3.243

Haimovitz, K., & Dweck, C. S. (2016). Parents' views of failure predict children's fixed and growth intelligence mind-sets. Psychological Science, 27(6), 859–869. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616639727

He, J., Guo, D., Zhang, Q., Liu, Y., Lou, L., & Shen, M. (2016). The influence of goal value on persistence in exuberant Chinese children. Social Development, 25(2), 256-267. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12149

Johnson, J., Panagioti, M., Bass, J., Ramsey, L., & Harrison, R. (2017). Resilience to emotional distress in response to failure, error or mistakes: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 52, 19–42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.11.007

Klahr, A. M., Thomas, K. M., Hopwood, C. J., Klump, K. L., & Burt, S. A. (2013). Evocative gene–environment correlation in the mother–child relationship: A twin study of interpersonal processes. Development and Psychopathology, 25(1), 105-118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579412000934

Krohne, H. W., Pieper, M., Knoll, N., & Breimer, N. (2002). The cognitive regulation of emotions: The role of success versus failure experience and coping dispositions. Cognition and Emotion, 16(2), 217–243. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000301

Lee, M. A., Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., & Dush, C. M. K. (2012). Parenting perfectionism and parental adjustment. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 454-457. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.10.047

Lee, W. W. S. (2017). Relationships among grit, academic performance, perceived academic failure, and stress in associate degree students. Journal of Adolescence, 60(1), 148–152. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.08.006

Lilley, C., Sirois, F., & Rowse, G. (2020). A meta-analysis of parental multidimensional perfectionism and child psychological outcomes. Personality and Individual Differences, 162, 110015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110015

Liu, G., Su, Q., & Han, Y. (2023). The power of trust: How does parents’ failure mindset affect children’s intelligence mindset? Personality and Individual Differences, 206, 112139. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112139

Lucca, K., Horton, R., & Sommerville, J. A. (2019). Keep trying!: Parental language predicts infants’ persistence. Cognition, 193, 104025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104025

Mokrova, I. L., O'Brien, M., Calkins, S. D., Leerkes, E. M., & Marcovitch, S. (2012). Links between family social status and preschoolers' persistence: The role of maternal values and quality of parenting. Infant and Child Development, 21(6), 617-633. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1761

Morgan, G. A., Wang, J., Barrett, K. C., Liao, H. F., Wang, P. J., Huang, S. Y., & Józsa, K. (2019). The Revised Dimensions of Mastery Questionnaire (DMQ 18): A manual and forms for its use and scoring. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/George-Morgan-4/publication/326107138_The_Revised_Dimensions_of_Mastery_Questionnaire_DMQ_18/links/5d9f92bf299bf116fe9c7f02/The-Revised-Dimensions-of-Mastery-Questionnaire-DMQ-18.pdf

Penzel, I. B., Persich, M. R., Boyd, R. L., & Robinson, M. D. (2017). Linguistic evidence for the failure mindset as a predictor of life span longevity. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 51(3), 348-355. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-016-9857-x

Pomerantz, E. M., Grolnick, W. S., & Price, C. E. (2005). The role of parents in how children approach achievement. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 259-278). Guilford Press.

Putnam, S. P., & Rothbart, M. K. (2006). Development of short and very short forms of the Children's Behavior Questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 87(1), 102-112. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa8701_09

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68 - 78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.68

Seong, H., & Chang, E. (2021). Profiles of perfectionism, achievement emotions, and academic burnout in South Korean adolescents: Testing the 2× 2 model of perfectionism. Learning and Individual Differences, 90, 102045. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102045

Skinner, E. A., & Wellborn, J. G. (1994). Coping during childhood and adolescence: A motivational perspective. In D. Featherman, R. Lerner & M. Perlmutter (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 12, pp. 91–133). Erlbaum. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315789255-3

Su, A., & He, G. (2024). The effects of parents’ failure beliefs on children’s math achievement: children’s math self-efficacy, responses to failure and intelligence mindset as mediators. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 39(3), 3011-3028. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-024-00833-6

Sutter, M., Untertrifaller, A., & Zoller, C. (2022). Grit increases strongly in early childhood and is related to parental background. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 3561. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-07542-4

Tao, V. Y. K., Li, Y., & Wu, A. M. S. (2022). Do not despise failures: Students’ failure mindset, perception of parents’ failure mindset, and implicit theory of intelligence. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 37(2), 375 - 389. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-020-00524-y

Tiberio, S. S., Capaldi, D. M., Kerr, D. C. R., Bertrand, M., Pears, K. C., & Owen, L. (2016). Parenting and the development of effortful control from early childhood to early adolescence: A transactional developmental model. Development and Psychopathology, 28(3), 837–853. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579416000341

Wang, W., Spinrad, T. L., & Eisenberg, N. (2023). The development and prediction of young children's behavioral mastery motivation. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 62, 239-250. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.09.001

Wilder, S. (2014). Effects of parental involvement on academic achievement: A meta-synthesis. Educational Review, 66(3), 377-397. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2013.780009

Wilson, B. J., Petaja, H., Yun, J., King, K., Berg, J., Kremmel, L., & Cook, D. (2014). Parental emotion coaching: Associations with self-regulation in aggressive/rejected and low aggressive/popular children. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 36(2), 81-106. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07317107.2014.910731

Wittig, S. M., & Rodriguez, C. M. (2019). Emerging behavior problems: Bidirectional relations between maternal and paternal parenting styles with infant temperament. Developmental Psychology, 55(6), 1199-1214. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000707

Ziegert, D. I., Kistner, J. A., Castro, R., & Robertson, B. (2001). Longitudinal study of young children's responses to challenging achievement situations. Child Development, 72(2), 609–624. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00300